“Failure is the key to Success” or “Failure is Success in progress” are just a couple of the many suggestions that pop up in the google search tab if you type in the word “failure”.

In a society in which success is measured depending on the number of trophies you collect and the goals you manage to achieve, it is hard not to drown.

Yet, after 6000 laps around the sun – which is approximately when the start of human civilization has been dated –, we let our failures define our self-worth.

Apparently, what you’re not told is the most obvious thing: it is hard to reach anything without failing a hundred, a million times. Simply put, something must go wrong, before you can actually make it right. “Expertise” isn’t the right word, but it’s the first word that comes to mind1.

Just imagine what it takes to learn a muscle up on a bar; to successfully juggle five balls; stick precision jumps on a rail or even just get to a bodyweight snatch with a good technique. If you have ever tried performing something like this, you know for sure it takes loads of mistakes before getting used to the movement, to the pattern, to the exercise. You may be able to perform them in a first lucky try, but this is not what I am talking about.

Some athletes asked me once: is it enough to make mistakes over and over again to progress? They were referring to a perception of constantly failing in what they were doing. My answer was: “Certainly not. Something must change, execution after execution, leaving space for the firm establishment of a progression”. It’s not about the mistakes alone, it is about what you do to straighten the route. The small changes. As a matter of this fact, trying to raise a boiling hot pot from the fire a hundred times with your bare hands, will simply lead to a severe burn. You’ll have everything, but a solution.

So, the real question is: how can we get better and improve, using failure as a tool instead of as a limitation?

First of all, we need to unclothe our minds from useless complications and break down the first scenario.

Here are the ingredients for your magic recipe to “getting things done”:

• An individual – called “X”
• A task, or a problem that needs to be solved
• An action from the individual, defined as an attempt to solve the problem
• A feedback from the environment
• A result: either a success or a failure

1. X has a problem;
2. X elaborates a first possible solution to the problem;
3. X implements the solution into the specific scenario of interest;
4. X either succeeds or fails (a basic feedback loop);
5. X gathers enough information to understand what happened during the process;
6. If the outcome is a failure: X starts over again from the top applying an updated strategy.

Nothing fancy, only a logical acquisition of knowledge.

To make this process work effectively, the underpinning evidence of a mistake needs to be spotted and sorted out immediately before repeating the task. Once the miscalculation is identified by the central (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the body is capable of digesting the information, making sure the same problem won’t happen again. Later on, a different strategy can be tested to see if it may be more suitable for the situation.

This concept alone is capable of triggering a massive difference in the way in which failure is approached. The environment only presents the raw information: a world of endless opportunities. However, it’s up to each individual to catch, understand, process and absorb them. I call it a “process of discrimination”.

That means being able to distinguish the background noise and the inferences from what is crucial for the practice development.

Many psychological experiments are based on this: it’s called target and distractor processing2. Another great example is the following: “I want you to focus and try NOT to think of a white bear” and there you go.. you’re thinking of one3. You couldn’t help it.

Just ”trying” to implement a new algorithm is not enough. Even though the same result can be achieved via a different strategy, the new technique should at least resemble as much as possible that of the correct execution.

Now, picture an athlete (for example the same individual defined “X” above) attempting a Clean and Jerk. Twice. On the first try, “X” may miss the catch in a Jerk as a result of projecting the barbell too forward instead of upwards.

During the second try, “X” is capable of re-calculating the trajectory based on the previous mistake. In order to correctly execute the catch, an upward straight line needs to be traced; backwards, but not too much, in order to prevent damaging the jaw.

Now, everything makes sense. Right?! You just have to fail, and try again; fail and try again; failing while paying a bit of attention to the mistakes.

This concept was theorized back in 1968 when Welford proposed his “Information Processing Theory”4. Since then, 50 years have passed and science surely kept evolving. Blindly believing in Welford’s ideas right now would be like comparing the complexity of a whole human being 5, to this useless machine.

The reality is that humans are complicated creatures that are capable of intertwining many different inputs to act and learn.

In the previous analysis, we failed to consider all the factors that make us the most evolved and intelligent species on Earth. Motivation, metacognition, attribution, self-efficacy, commitment and intention are only one of those.

The constant interchange of data in a system is created by the interaction between “ an action and a perception”7. This is only possible if the interaction with different elements in the space (affordances) is perceived8, and the actions are consistently readjusted based on the “constraints” of the situation9.

Basically, when talking about skill acquisition and motor control, we need to become better in the act of solving new problems, in the fastest way possible. Thus, looking deep into the situation and analysing the environment, rather than focusing on learning a single pattern by trial and error, without paying the “right” attention.

Learning a new skill also means producing a solution to a certain problem.

The capacity of being able to generate those solutions is what can be transferred, not the skills. For example: kicking a ball, might transfer into kicking a jianzi (a feather ball). This not because the pattern is similar but because the motor learning process placed in the act of solving the problem and the situations can be recalled. In the theories of transfer, these processes are usually referred to as hugging (a comparison between a past experience into a similar one in the present) and bridging (hypothesizing a strategy from a previously learned one)10.

Similar tasks, contexts, affordances, problems, constraints, muscles’ activation and coordination in the body are all needed to begin the transfer process. This has relevant implications when setting scenarios for learning. Therefore, coaches should consider this, building complicated and interesting problems for their students and guide them towards progress.

Summing up:

Progress is like a game and things have to be done correctly in order to win the match. Failing is an essential part of this process, but it must be done right: as a conscious act of discriminating the important elements from the less relevant ones.

Moreover, learning something new is not as simple as the capacity to process a feedback loop, due to the complexity of our minds. The image that more closely resembles it is that of actively solving a problem. As a consequence, the more intricate the motor problems, the faster a practitioner will become at getting better in a similar field through transfer.

Therefore, the best movers out there are those who can solve an infinite variety of problems in the quickest and more efficient ways.

REFERENCE:

1. Palahniuk, C. (2002). Choke. New York: Doubleday.

2. Bledowski, C., Prvulovic, D., Goebel, R., Zanella, F., & Linden, D. (2004). Attentional systems in target and distractor processing: a combined ERP and fMRI study. Neuroimage, 22(2), 530-540. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.034

3. Zimmerman, J. (2018). Opinion | Don’t Think About the White Bear. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/11/opinion/sunday/dont-think-about-the-white-bear.html

4. Welford, A. (1968). Fundamentals of skill. London: Methuen.

5. QWOP. (2018). Foddy.net. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from http://www.foddy.net/Athletics.html

6. Advanced Useless Machine. (2018). YouTube. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from https://youtu.be/eLtUB8ncEnA?t=7

7. Bernštejn, N., & Latash, M. On dexterity and its development

8. Gibson, J., & Gibson, J. (2015). The ecological approach to visual perception. New York: Psychology Press

9. Davids, K., Bennett, S., & Button, C. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

10. Green, J. (2015). Teaching for transfer in EAP: Hugging and bridging revisited. English For Specific Purposes, 37, 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2014.06.003.

*Picture by Andy Day.

Apprenticeship is generally considered as that “process of developing from novice to proficiency under the guidance of a skilled expert”, that “varies across cultures and among different skilled communities, but for many communities of practice, it offers an ideal ethnographic point of entry” 1

With this in mind, consider for a moment the following scenario:

“Sha wants to start an in-depth training in Tai-Chi, Fu style. This really matters to her. In order to put into practice her will of becoming more experienced in that specific field, she decided to move into a new city where a well-known teacher is offering the chance of learning and improving her abilities. There, she is accepted into a community and after a while she can move her first confident steps into the Tai-Chi Fu discipline”.

To fulfill her needs, Sha had to actively build a connection with the system, bond with the other students and slowly find her way in her development. She had to make a move.

Without this point of entrance, the access to that specific declination of Tai-Chi she was looking for would have not been impossible.

When considering the concept of apprenticeship, it would be wrong to label it as a mere transference of knowledge, limited to the acquisition of an implicit structure in a given practice (It was Tai-Chi for Sha, it may be Dance, Parkour, Climbing, Meditation and so on, for you). Rather, it involves a reciprocal cultivation of skills, a common cultural education and the presence of an idealized practice.

An important aspect of this condition, is the participative dimension of the personal research. To get back into the previous scenario, Sha can succeed in entering the apprenticeship only if she is intrinsically motivated to do so; if she has some goals to achieve and specific directions she is willing to take. Without these premises, she would not have undertaken the first step: looking for a teacher.

This typology of education wants to stress the importance of giving to the students some indications about where to go and what to do, while simultaneously allowing them to fully express and develop themselves, within the realm of practice and life.

Researches on the topic, confirm that the best way to create long term memories and enhance the learning process, is to be personally involved in the practice development itself 2.

This is why intertwining the learning process with life – looking for links and transferable qualities – is so important.

An apprenticeship is supposed to do this, and a personal growth, to be called so, has to happen on many layers. 

The alumni should be thrown into many different scenarios, in which they are able to confront their inner selves. To do so, they have to work out of their comfort zones, in uneasy situations and have their emotions shaken while trying to reach the long term goals they have chosen for themselves.

The apprenticeship roots can probably be sought from as far as the beginning of humanity. In fact, various are the authors that underlined how the younger generations need to absorb memes from the previous one before actually being able to move forward. For example, early language deprivation during childhood irreversibly impacted the children’s ability to develop the normal language acquisition process 3,4. Just imagine if progress never happened. We would still be out there trying to figure out how to make a fire. Wouldn’t we?!

Therefore, the apprenticeship need to be considered as something that allows constant mutation and development. Borrowing a concept from alchemic Taoism, the word “Huan” or “還” that means “return” also means “looking back” or “turning around” while “moving forward”. That is, it represents a “transformation”.

This wants to underline the importance of maintaining a collective knowledge coming from the past, while moving some steps forward into evolution.

To pass on an art effectively, the new students’ creations have to be somehow mediated by the teachers. This assigns the result a figurative value, rich in significance. It is a teacher’s duty to spot these raising abilities as they reveal themselves; accompanying the students in the journey without completely altering the roots and the philosophy of their specific practice. 

All this can happen only if teachers are willing to join a “participant observation” rather than a mere “observation of the participants”. In fact, being actively part of a process rather than just look at it from the outside may increase the person’s involvement and overall provide optimised tools for his/her development.

The approach of “looking back to move forward” is exactly what an apprenticeship is about: a person cannot just innovate something without knowing all the history that had been leading to his or her generation. From here, the need of a guide arises and the student needs to be like a chameleon: one eye on the past and one eye on the future.

Nowadays, many educational systems are based on more dogmatic, cold and systematic approaches where all the students have to attend lectures while being distracted by more interesting activities on their smartphones and then study separately in an individual setting to sustain the exams. 

When I talk about embracing a movement practice, I think of something innovative, where the participants can literally fall in love with the activities proposed to them and look forward to see a progress in a positive and encouraging environment. A context where practice and theory merge.

To sum it up, I believe that the apprenticeship is one of the best ways to learn, grow and develop. However, correctly implementing it is not easy. It takes time, effort, motivation, money and a rigorous commitment. It is not something that ends in a month; instead it continues for decades up to a lifetime.

This approach to the practice, allows the creation of long term bonds between teachers and students, within a positive and fresh environment. To connect inside this system, a person should be ready to join the community and get ready to approach any situation in an “empty cup” state of mind.

Education comes before everything, and it should be achieved in the best way possible. Thus, depending on the learners’ ability to respond to each material considered. Students will need to be active and self motivated in their process of development. All the teachers should be on the field, practicing every day. In this way they can make sure to remain “inside the stream” of the practice.

Emotional and intentional experiences are a crucial part of the process too. The work on personal limitations, deep fears and discomfort has to be considered with regards, as crucial elements to enter inside this system.

Are you ready to start a “huan” approach to any kind of learning? It’s time to look back to move forward. Click here to find out more, or to start a transformative process today.

References

1 Downey, G., Dalidowicz, M. and Mason, P. (2014). Apprenticeship as method: embodied learning in ethnographic practice. Qualitative Research, 15(2), pp.183-200.

2 Prince, M. (2004). Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), pp.223-231. Available at: http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/Prince_AL.pdf

3 McCulloch (2014) What Happens if a Child Is Never Exposed to Language? Available at: http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2014/07/16/children_not_exposed_to_language_nicaraguan_sign_language_wild_children.html

4 Brown, L.J., Locke, J., Jones, P., & Whiteside, S. (1998) Language Development After Extreme Childhood Deprivation: A Case Study. 5th International Conference on Spoken Language, Sydney, Australia. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292539482_Language_Development_After_Extreme_Childhood_Deprivation_A_Case_Study 

*Picture by Andy Day.

Me, writing down thoughts on the oldest Zen temple of the island, Tokyo.

It is the 30th of December 2017, after over 20 km of walking in the rain. With heavy bags on our backs and wet like two drops of water into the sea, we arrive at the designated place for our sleep.
After checking in, we just want to get a hot shower, shake and do some stretch, so we rush towards our room.
On our way, a squared full optional vending machine threw at me one of Japan’s most basic lessons in capital letter: PLEASE, RELAX SLOWLY. Geniuses.

Instead of training to maintain my skills and my capacities, I have used any possible moment to improve them in an ever-changing scenario. How? Climbing up into the apartment instead of using the stairs; waiting for the train in a split; sprinting to catch the train before the one displayed; using gravity to slide down all the tubes stations; resting in a squat or trying to hang with the pinkies on the bars of the tube with my bag on my back …And while doing all this: the stares of the people around me, ah! Priceless.

Our itinerary has been pretty simple. Tokyo -> surroundings -> Kyoto surroundings -> Back.

We explored Tokyo as the first thing. We visited many Zen temples and practiced zazen meditation; ate the craziest dishes we could find; infiltrated buildings to see the mega city from the very top; explored all the small, non-touristic alleys with a psychogeography approach and talked in gestures with old travelers and locals.

Those, are some almost magical places where Japanese people go, get naked from all problems and clothes to relax in the hot springs. After soaking for a while, they wash with salt and hot water. All this, in an almost surreal atmosphere (I clearly don’t have pics of the inside, guess why..).
The night after, we slept in a Ryokan, a traditional accommodation with Onsens inside the room. Amazing place, if you got the chance to try one, do it.
During New Year’s Eve, we followed some people, traditionally dressed up like foxes, and took part into a huge procession where a Lion God (Shi Shi Mai – my new favourite creature) is guided by some servants and bites the head of those who bow to protect them from bad luck and evil spirits. Kids, middle age and old people, beautifully performed.

To honor those places, I have written a movement poetry (haiku): 

– The ankle dorsiflexion is 10points more than anywhere else. They are just born differently.

If you need anything at any time just look for some seven elevens or family marts, WIFI, questionable food and smiling that hate their job but would give their life for it.

– It takes around 10 Japanese people to make up for the sound of 1 Italian

Thanks to my partner for the great adventure. Love you to bits, Ari!

Warm hugs in cold days:

Why do I care so much to tell you about my travelings?
Well, I believe traveling allow us to get a different point of views, explore other perspectives and ultimately challenge ourselves with beautiful experiences that reshape our beings. If there is one thing my mother told me when I was young and that I’ll never forget is: “the best investment you can do with money is to use them to travel”. Spot on.

Never trust those who don’t move and those who don’t travel…

Now back in Italy right in the tornado ready to run this 2018.

Marcello.

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Just training?

I believe in living a life and embracing a practice and I don’t believe in the importance of training per se. I want to cultivate better people and not just better athletes.

There is a reason why in many martial arts, the practice is also referred to as “the way” and not only “the training” (Kim & Bäck, 2000). In those cultures, exploring a discipline means to fully immerse in it, understanding the underpinning principles and approaches to then make it one with every other act present in the daily living (Macfarlane, 2010).

Consequently, every experience we go through in life should add something to ourselves, otherwise it’s empty and useless.

Growth, challenge, education and constant development should be the main vectors of research in an active life. Day by day, adding something new.

Using a metaphor to describe this concept, I like looking at a person like as the rewinding action of a shuttle, that, instead of leaving shards of self behind, it builds and accumulates new pieces on board.

As a matter of fact, humans are dynamical creatures, capable of adapting, reshaping, changing (Port & Van Gelder, 1995). Doing so, they allow themselves to grow. This, stresses the importance of the process of development as well as that of the final goal (Kornspan, 2009). If somebody gets rich in a day nothing will be learned, whereas, in the process of getting rich, many entrepreneurs got wise and their personalities grew.

Given all this, training sessions should be minor mirrors of our lives, where experimentations do not lead to catastrophes but to a sequence of trial and errors we can learn from (Young, 2009).

So that, if this process is done right and sincerely checked it should allow a person to go towards living a more autonomous, healthy, deep and shared existence.

Therefore, practice becomes life and life becomes practice.

About progress

I value progress as the capacity to change. This ability derives from a transformative process that implies an adaptation. It can either be dictated by random events or conscious choices.

However, in my work, I consider logical and methodological awareness particularly relevant, giving more value to this second instance. Therefore, reshaping bodies and minds is possible by committing into a process with consistency.

When the goal is successfully achieved, self-confidence and intrinsic motivation normally undergo a boost, that makes sure the inner fire for training is kept nourished and active (Kornspan, 2009).

In my view, the basis of progress should be aimed towards unleashing all the potentials hidden inside a human’s body.

Evolutionary speaking, humans are the result of mutations that allowed them to successfully use their bodies to express possibilities, within the limitations of the environment (Salmon & Shackelford, 2007). Therefore, the structure all animals are born with, is the ultimate resource and limitation for learning, progressing and exploring.

A bird can learn how to fly due to the shape it is born with, but cannot move on four limbs, because it only has two legs.

Similarly, a man can manipulate objects with the hands, due to the large number of options fingers provided, but cannot learn how to breathe underwater since it is lacking the gills.

Those biological limitations are the only boundaries I will not challenge in my researches.

Given these assumptions, it’s important to commit to this investigation with what the Zen scholars referred to as the “Empty Cup”. That is, with the least preconceptions, in order to embrace all the possibilities.

 

“Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912), received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen.

 

Nan-in served tea. He poured his visitor’s cup full, and then kept on pouring.

 

The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain himself. “It is overfull. No more will go in!”

 

“Like this cup,” Nan-in said, “you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show you Zen unless you first empty your cup?” (Reps & Nyogen, 2011).

Training focus

To ensure progress, understanding, sustainability, and longevity, different methodologies can be implemented and linked together. The starting point of my view is based on a deep research and exploration of the discipline of Parkour; learned from all over the world, from various masters, founders, and companions. In dark roads, wild forests and urban jungles.

A big inspiration of my work surely comes from Ido Portal, founder of the community I am part of, called: “The Movement Culture”. Whereas, my knowledge and critical approach to S&C derives from my MSc studies at St. Mary’s University, Twickenham, London. The rest is yet to come.

I consider each of these pieces of my development as complementary: merging to form the same part of the coin, through different transversal principles.

My investigation aims to look for non-technical approaches that allow maximal transfer between skills. I progress from families of techniques to attributes all the way into transversal principles. To give you a brief idea of the themes I touch:

1. Displacement in space: brachiating, jumping, landing, vaulting, locomoting to name a few. Gaining different movement solutions and possibilities is, in fact, essential to work towards more real or complicated scenarios and explore any environment.
2. Creative paradigms: dancing with objects, rhythmical work, task-oriented games, acrobatics and principles for techniques sequencing.
3. Physical knowledge and awareness: motor intelligence, problem-solving, movement taxonomy, hands/objects/body balancing, body integrity, and segmentation.
4. Physical preparedness: strength and conditioning training, mobility, hard/soft prehab and rehab techniques.
5. Accessory work: visualization techniques, breathing patterns, recovery techniques, and emotional control.

A strong, intelligent body

When it comes to training, the most important thing is to be able to set the right amount of stressors on the body, in order to produce a physical adaptation without damaging it (Dhabhar, 2014).

In fact, if the progressions and the regressions of an exercise are not chosen correctly, then no adaptation will occur; leading to stagnation in progress on the long term.

Once assessed and considered the level of the person who will enter the training, the principles of progressive overload have to be implemented (Weineck, 2004).

However, loading the body must be done with caution. In fact, strength training is not only a capacity issue but it is firstly a skill. The technique is the driving force for progression, not volume, not intensity, not frequency, nor any other training variable. Technique comes therefore before everything (Evangelista, 2011).

A few more principles I use to program trainings are derived from the main theories belonging to some notorious sport and S&C resources (Bondarchuk & Yessis, 2007; Issurin & Yessis, 2008; Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2017; Verkhoshansky & Siff, 2009):

1. Exercise selection: I favor exercises where human beings can overload themselves the most with. Bilateral exercises, low complexity to start with to then move into more unilateral and complex motions:

1. Bodyweight into Weighted Calisthenics.
2. Powerlifting into olympic lifting.
3. General capacity into sport specific.
1. Strength spectrum: I tend to train strength in all modalities, forms and qualities. Speed and power training, maximal and supramaximal strength, elastic and ballistic strength and endurance. However, if I need to produce a specific outcome, I rely on the dynamic correspondence principles to ensure maximum retention and transfer (Verkhoshansky & Siff, 2009).
2. Loading schemes:

1. Beginners: Low to medium frequency. Technique based training, linear increase in volume and intensity.
2. Intermediate: Technical refinement, medium to high frequency and undulated periodization.
3. Advanced: High frequency, conjugated periodization, shock cycles and great care of recovery procedures.

1. Full ranges of motion: An exercise should be trained in full range of motion, to gather the most benefits out of it. Yet, partial ROMS might be needed to target specific requirements.
2. Assistant exercises: I insert exercises in isolation to work on the “weak links” of the kinetic chains.
3. Variety: Exercises must be cycled and varied to avoid physical and psychological plateaus.
4. Conditioning: it is an essential part of the game. I train it through movement, in relation with the environment. I evaluate it at the beginning and in the end of a training program with the same rigorous testing of strength training.
5. Recovery: I add recovery techniques and transitions period to avoid chronic stress. Moreover, I use methodologies to assess the levels of fatigue present in heavier sessions.

S&C, in my view, is an activity of support considered alongside the practice itself. It is also time and energy consuming and it should bring results compared to the effort.

If a goal is set, it must be reached. If a goal is not reached, it’s the teachers duty to underpin the problems that occurred: either they are program-related or motivational-based.

However, this has not to be perceived as a passive learning mechanism: the student must be active throughout the process, by questioning the material received and challenging it (Kornspan, 2009).

Injury prevention and correct rehabilitation are fundamental component of this game, since longevity has no price.

The teacher-student complex: receiving and giving

The teacher needs to be an example, a leader, a guide and the first to try out new experiments. He should always be on the field practicing, perfecting the old material and developing new concepts. Everything he proposes to the students must have been tried before. If not, it should be openly declared. The material presented through classes, workshops and personal coaching must be diluted and translated into different teaching styles, so that it can be better absorbed and understood (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). Moreover, coaching should be brought along in such a way it can operate in harmony with the students.

Those, must embrace a strong training ethics, reject laziness at all costs, and trust the teachers’ choices. However, once digested, the material received must always be challenged and refined.

The practice must be deliberate and personal. No external stimuli should be stronger than the need for personal improvement.

Each student should oversee its own role and development: it should be their wish to join every class; to refine their flaws; to ask meaningful questions and to set their personal long term goals. Moreover respect should be payed to people of all ages, training partners, communities and spaces.

To conclude, here are some reminders in a nutshell: trust your teacher, believe in yourself, dream big and be ready to change.

References

References

Bompa, T., & Buzzichelli, C. (2017). Periodizzazione dell’allenamento sportivo. Calzetti Mariucci; 2 ed.

Bondarchuk, A., & Yessis, M. (2007). Transfer of training in sports. Michigan: Ultimate Athlete Concepts.

Dhabhar, F. (2014). Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful. Immunologic Research, 58(2-3), 193-210.

Evangelista, P. (2011). DCSS: Power mechanics for powerlifters. Figline Valdarno (Fi): S. Ciccarelli.

Issurin, V., & Yessis, M. (2008). Block periodization: Breakthrough in Sports Training. Michigan: Ultimate athlete concepts.

Kim, T., & Bäck, A. (2000). The way to go. Seoul, Korea: Nanam Pub. House.

Kornspan, A. (2009). Fundamentals of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Macfarlane, A. (2010). Enigmatico Giappone. Torino: EDT.

Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2002). Teaching physical education. San Francisco [etc.]: Benjamin Cummungs.

Port, R., & Van Gelder, T. (1995). Mind As Motion: Explorations in the Dynamics of Cognition. MIT Press.

Reps, P., & Nyogen, S. (2011). Zen flesh, Zen bones. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing.

Salmon, C., & Shackelford, T. (2007). Family relationships. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Verkhoshansky, Y., & Siff, M. (2009).Supertraining. Rome, Italy.

Young, H. (2009). Learning by trial and error. Games And Economic Behavior, 65(2), 626-643.

Weineck, J. (2004). Optimales Training. Balingen: Spitta-Verl.

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When it comes to training programming, different methods have been employed in the history of Strength Training to generate positive adaptations and elicit improvement in terms of strength outcomes of an athlete 1. What seems to be clear is that certain training variables may affect the results of different training units, leading to a complex interrelation that has to be taken into account by the coach when drafting individualised programmes 2.

Matter of this discussion will be therefore providing a literature review on how this process can be conducted, using, depending on the circumstances, a more structured or auto-regulated training protocol 1,3,4. Thus, in an attempt of determining those scenarios in which one may be more effective than the other, pinpointing the reasons behind it.

In periodized protocols, the number of repetition per set, the number of sets, the recovery or the kilograms lifted are only some of those required to generate the expected adaptations 3.

If these elements are stimulated to the right degree and in the correct manner, they are capable of increasing the performance 4. On the other hand, failing to match these criteria can result in stagnation of the athlete’s progression or produce detrimental effects on the body 4.

From the first understanding of those principles that lay underneath the training process, the most crucial variables can be optimally structured in a training programme. Ideally, this should be implied to avoid a flawed random organization of a session. Thus, promoting instead a reasoned long-term development 5.

As a matter of this fact, various are the techniques commonly implemented in a Strength and Conditioning setting to ensure a stable progression of the athlete1. Linear, undulating, block periodization (just to name a few), comprise the core of reference for any S&C coach.

Even if it is true that to a certain degree a body response to training can be predicted, a project plan written prior its implementation may need further improvements along the way; so that the results both match the athlete’s expectations and satisfy the coach’s guidelines 1,6.

Periodized training (PT) is a methodology that allows a reasoned athlete’s progression in a strength development context so that almost every detail of the training is planned in great advance for a long period of time 7.

PT has been vastly adopted in rehabilitation scenarios to guide the injured athletes toward a successful return to their standard training regime, providing valuable elements for what concerns the exercise progression and the specific attention required by the athlete 8. In addition to this, it appeared to better guide the training novices; acknowledging them in the process.

When implementing Periodized Training in a Strength and Conditioning context, various authors were inclined to suggest that this methodology is somehow superior to that of non-periodized training (NPT) programmes 9. Thus, as the organization of long-term programmes was frequently adopted to predict the athlete’s performance for competition purposes 3.

Surely, this methodology needs to be cautiously implemented to prevent either the elicitation of excessive fatigue or the lack of an adequate training stimulation 10.

Autoregulation refers to an approach that can be implemented by the athlete while progressing with the training: a mechanism that allows a better control of the variables involved in the success of a specific session (fatigue levels, lack of sleep, stress etc), leaving more space and freedom to the athlete performing it 4. This does not have to be intended as a random organisation. On the other hand, it needs to be considered as the maximal exemplification of individualised training 4. No programme is structured in advance, and the expertise of the athlete, jointly with his readiness, can modulate and direct the exercises’ execution towards fruitful results 8.

Autoregulation was at first proposed as a system by DeLorme in 1945 and since then popularized by Sif 11. The idea behind the method is to consider the number of repetitions that the individual is capable of performing at a certain intensity in a single day and, from there, calculate the workload. Doing so, fatigue and readiness levels affecting the workout can be appropriately adjusted; avoiding the mere distribution of a rigid programme schedule 12. This allows a greater flexibility of the volumes and intensities of a training within a single session; more in line with the state of the freshness of an individual.

On the downside, if the athlete is not able to adequately estimate the training buffer (e.g. novices or beginners), the whole system breaks. Therefore, autoregulation requires a minimum range of expertise to be correctly implemented 13.

Nowadays, some technological devices (i.e. Gymaware) are available to visualise in a quantitative manner, the athlete’s effort during a session, focusing on the velocity of the repetition performed 14. However, in order to obtain accurate measures, the individual needs to focus on performing a fast concentric action; having a good technique; make sure not to skip any session and constantly be auto-motivated 15.

Periodized Training and Autoregulation have been compared in the literature for what concerns Strength Training, underlining the following outcomes: “autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise was found to be more effective at improving bench press strength, squat strength, and upper body endurance in trained athletes over a six weeks period” 16 and to provide “small advantage in lean mass accretion and upper body strength in strength-trained males” 17. On the other hand, others underline little to no difference between the two training methods 12. Thus, probably underlining that none of these methodologies is absolutely better or worse, but just that they can be more suitable for different goals and levels of expertise of the athlete.

In order to obtain more standardized values in future research, more attention should be directed on the choice of the samples, specifically considering untrained people and women.

Summing up, even though the outcomes of various studies seem to suggest the implementation of PT over NPT programmes and the dominance of autoregulation over PT in trained individuals, loads has still to be done in the Strength and Conditioning field to determine the de-contextualized and absolute supremacy of one method over the other.

References

1 Feigenbaum, M., & Pollock, M. (1997). Strength Training. The Physician And Sportsmedicine, 25(2), 44-64

2 Turner, A., & Comfort, P. (2018). Advanced strength and conditioning: An Evidence-based Approach

3 Lorenz, D., & Morrison, S. (2015). Current Concepts in Periodization of Strength and Conditioning for the Sport Physical Therapist. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 10(6), 734–747

4 Verkhoshansky, Y., & Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining. Rome, Italy: Verkhoshansky.

5 Kornspan, A. (2009). Fundamentals of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

6 NSCA Strength and Conditioning Professional Standards and Guidelines. (2009). NSCA. Retrieved 25 March 2018, from https://www.nsca.com/Education/Articles/S-C-professional-standards/

7 Fleck, S. (1999). Periodized Strength Training: A Critical Review. The Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research, 13(1), 82

8 Hoover, D., VanWye, W., & Judge, L. (2016). Periodization and physical therapy: Bridging the gap between training and rehabilitation. Physical Therapy In Sport, 18, 1-20

9 Rhea, M., & Alderman, B. (2004). A Meta-Analysis of Periodized versus Nonperiodized Strength and Power Training Programs. Research Quarterly For Exercise And Sport, 75(4), 413-422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2004.10609174

10 Issurin, V. (2010). New Horizons for the Methodology and Physiology of Training Periodization. Sports Medicine, 40(3), 189-206

11 Mann, B. (2011). A Programming Comparison: The APRE vs. Linear Periodization In Short Terms Periods (PhD). Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia

12 Fraser, J. (2018). A comparison between a traditionally periodised programme and a load autoregulated periodised programme for maximal strength gain in the squat, bench press, and deadlift in weight-trained males (Master Of Science). Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand

13 Eston RG, Wiliams JG. Reliability of ratings of perceived effort regulation of exercise intensity. British Journal of Sports medicine. 1988;22:153–155. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1478740/

14 Jovanović, M., & Flanagan, E. (2014). Researched Applications Of Velocity Based Strength Training. Journal Of Australian Strength And Conditioning, 22(2), 58-69

15 Kawamori, N., & Newton, R. (2006). Velocity Specificity of Resistance Training: Actual Movement Velocity Versus Intention to Move Explosively. Strength And Conditioning Journal, 28(2), 86.

16 Mann, J., Thyfault, J., Ivey, P., & Sayers, S. (2010). The Effect of Autoregulatory Progressive Resistance Exercise vs. Linear Periodization on Strength Improvement in College Athletes. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1718-1723.

17 Rauch, J., Ugrinowitsch, C., Barakat, C., Alvarez, M., Brummert, D., & Aube, D. et al. (2017). Auto-regulated exercise selection training regimen produces small increases in lean body mass and maximal strength adaptations in strength-trained individuals. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research, 1.

The aim of this piece of work is to display the complexity that lays behind strength training; shedding some light on the positive and the negative aspects of its usage in physical preparedness. In fact, within the lack of control in professionals sporting realms, strength training has been too frequently implemented without full awareness and consciousness. Evidence-based training (EBT), jointly with the direct experience on the field, is by the date the most comprehensive ways to enhance the athletes’ growth and progression, in a safe and controlled environment.

Back in 1988, Zatsiorsky defined the physical strength as “the ability of a given muscle or group of muscles to generate muscular force under specific conditions”1. Inside this definition lies the understanding that strength is a specific phenomenon that is not easily transferable from one scenario to another. Humans are able to impress strength in various situations under a specific typology of resistance in a specific time frame and for a certain duration, to producing a specific outcome2. Therefore, talking about “strength training” in general is misleading.

A great example of this concept can be that of a powerlifter who, despite his/her capacity of deadlifting three times his body weight, runs a one hundred meters race extremely slowly.

Moreover, when considering general (GPP) or specific (SPP) physical preparedness for a given sport, strength is just one of the abilities, alongside with “speed, endurance, skill, structure or flexibility”, that an athlete needs to develop 2.

It can be said that all these elements merge with one another in the reality of actions, creating a “biologic continuum” useful to interact with space 3.

Given the complexity of this matter, and the specificity of bodies adaptation, is it worth implementing strength training in someone’s routine?

Strength training has proven to be useful to avoid injuries, increase performance and protect from different diseases. Moreover, it appeared to effectively stress physiological changes, improving both kinetics and kinesthetic qualities 2.

From a brief analysis of the literature, strength training appears to be extremely valuable in various contexts 4,5,6. First of all, physiological and muscular functioning; jointly with a greater responsiveness to training were registered in samples of adults and elderly people7,8. In addition to this, strength training appeared to benefit cerebral palsy patients, specifically in reducing the detrimental effects of their illness on the muscles9,10. Strength training was successfully implemented both for pre-habilitation 11 and rehabilitation 12 purposes. In addition to this, it has been shown to enhance multiple conditional and physiological parameters when accurately added to the training schedule5. As a matter of fact, in less than three months adding ST to the routine elicited substantial adaptations for both “aerobic power” and “short-term endurance” in a male sample13.  Similar results were found for healthy, untrained males in another study, where strength training implementation produced relevant outcomes in terms of endurance, following heavy resistance training14.

Moreover, integrating it in endurance programmes, appeared to effectively increase “economy, muscle power and performance” both in trained and untrained individuals15. Neurological and muscular improvements (muscle size and function), leading to a greater coordination of the muscle groups, were registered in samples of prepubescent boys 16 and women 17; however, caution is required.

Besides from all the advantages displayed above, the implementation of strength has some limitations. In fact, if the training adaptations are not adequately adjusted and contextualized, they might elicit states of neuroendocrine system impairing, better known as “overtraining syndromes” 18. Thus, leading to fatigue and decrements in the performance19. This state is normally triggered as a consequence of excessive volume and intensity levels, or when the recovery time between sessions/cycles is not designed correctly 20.

Consequently, in order to achieve satisfying results for what concern an outstanding performance, strength training should always be adjusted to the specific needs and the current state of the athlete, appropriately selecting valuable exercises and training prescription; so that precious time and energies are not wasted 21 and both acute and chronic injuries can be limited22. Expertise in the programming structuration field can surely help better defining the most accurate strength training regime for every athlete 21.

As a matter of this fact, implementing systematic and individualized programming (IP) appeared to be superior to non-individualised ones when the ST addition was aimed at improving the jumping performance for a sample of trained soccer and rugby players23.

Even if less harming as a factor, when talking about athletic performance, it is necessary to consider the needs of the sports. As a matter of this fact, for what concerns shot putters, the rate of force development (RFD) has been shown to be superior in predicting performance rather than maximal force output 24. This implies that training in order to reduce the explosive strength deficit for shot putters would be more beneficial than improving the 1RM.

Conclusions

Given what underlined above, it is clear that strength training can serve as a valuable tool for a great variety of contexts, ranging from the performance enhancement of trained and untrained athletes 14,15 to medical9,10 and rehabilitation 12 applications. It was clearly pointed out that successful outcomes (when it comes to the integration of ST in a programme) were both related to the coach’s determination of the athlete’s needs and his/her ability to structure an individualized training regimen 21. Lastly, the typology of movement context, the sporting scenarios, and the personal long-term goals will dictate which form of strength training should be used to elicit the most effective results 1,2,3.

Reference

1 Zatsiorsky, V. (2005). Biomechanics in sport. Oxford: Blackwell Science.

2 Verkhoshansky, Y., & Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining. Rome, Italy: Verkhoshansky.

3 Ludovic Seifert, Keith Davids. Ecological Dynamics: a theoretical framework for understanding sport performance, physical education and physical activity. CS-DC’15 World e-conference, Sep 2015, Tempe, United States. CS-DC’15 World e-conference.

4 Sale, D. (2008). Neural Adaptation to Strength Training. Strength And Power In Sport, 281-314.

5 Burger, M., & Burger, T. (2002). Neuromuscular and Hormonal Adaptations to Resistance Training. Strength And Conditioning Journal, 24(3), 51-59.

6 O’Connor, P., Herring, M., & Caravalho, A. (2010). Mental Health Benefits of Strength Training in Adults. American Journal Of Lifestyle Medicine, 4(5), 377-396.

7 Tsutsumi, T., Don, B., Zaichkowsky, L., & Delizonna, L. (1997). Physical Fitness and Psychological Benefits of Strength Training in Community Dwelling Older Adults. Applied Human Science Journal Of Physiological Anthropology, 16(6), 257-266.

8 Frontera, W., & Bigard, X. (2002). The benefits of strength training in the elderly. Science & Sports, 17(3), 109-116.

9 Taylor, N., Dodd, K., & Larkin, H. (2004). Adults with cerebral palsy benefit from participating in a strength training programme at a community gymnasium. Disability And Rehabilitation, 26(19), 1128-1134.

10 McBurney, H., Taylor, N., Dodd, K., & Graham, H. (2003). A qualitative analysis of the benefits of strength training for young people with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 45(10).

11 Hejna, W., Rosenberg, A., Buturusis, D., & Krieger, A. (1982). The Prevention of Sports Injuries in High School Students Through Strength Training. National Strength Coaches Association Journal, 4(1), 28.

12 Latham, N., & Liu, C. (2010). Strength Training in Older Adults: The Benefits for Osteoarthritis. Clinics In Geriatric Medicine, 26(3), 445-459.

13 hickson, R., Rosenkoetter, M., & Brown, M. (1980). Strength training effects on aerobic power and short-term endurance. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 12(5), 336-339.

14 marcinik, E., Potts, J., Schlabach, G., Will, S., Dawson, P., & Hurley, B. (1991). Effects of strength training on lactate threshold and endurance performance. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 23(6), 739-743.

15 Beattie, K., Kenny, I., Lyons, M., & Carson, B. (2014). The Effect of Strength Training on Performance in Endurance Athletes. Sports Medicine, 44(6), 845-865.

16 ramsay, J., Blimkie, C., Smith, K., Garner, S., Macdougall, J., & Sale, D. (1990). Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 22(5), 605-614.

17 Häkkinen, K., Kraemer, W., Newton, R., & Alen, M. (2001). Changes in electromyographic activity, muscle fibre and force production characteristics during heavy resistance/power strength training in middle-aged and older men and women. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 171(1), 51-62.

18 Halson, S.L., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2004) Does overtraining exist?. An analysis of overreaching and overtraining research. Sports Medicine, 34, 967-981

19 Fry, A., & Kraemer, W. (1997). Resistance Exercise Overtraining and Overreaching. Sports Medicine, 23(2), 106-129.

20 Fry, R.W., Morton, A.R., & Keast, D. (1991). Overtraining in athletes An update. Sports Med, 12, 32-65

21 Bompa, T., & Haff, G. (2009). Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training. Champaign. Human Kinetics.

22 Lavallee, M., & Balam, T. (2010). An Overview of Strength Training Injuries. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(5), 307-313.

23 Jiménez-Reyes, P., Samozino, P., Brughelli, M., & Morin, J. (2017). Effectiveness of an Individualized Training Based on Force-Velocity Profiling during Jumping. Frontiers In Physiology, 7.

24 Zaras, N., Stasinaki, A., Methenitis, S., Krase, A., Karampatsos, G., & Georgiadis, G. et al. (2016). Rate of Force Development, Muscle Architecture, and Performance in Young Competitive Track and Field Throwers. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research, 30(1), 81-92.